Egyptian Literature
Circa 1400 BC.
Once there were two brethren, of one mother and one father; Anpu was the name of the elder, and Bata was the name of the younger. Now, as for Anpu he had a house, and he had a wife. But his little brother was to him as it were a son; he it was who made for him his clothes; he it was who followed behind his oxen to the fields; he it was who did the ploughing; he it was who harvested the corn; he it was who did for him all the matters that were in the field. Behold, his younger brother grew to be an excellent worker, there was not his equal in the whole land; behold, the spirit of a god was in him.
Now after this the younger brother followed his oxen in his daily manner; and every evening he turned again to the house, laden with all the herbs of the field, with milk and with wood, and with all things of the field. And he put them down before his elder brother, who was sitting with his wife; and he drank and ate, and he lay down in his stable with the cattle. And at the dawn of day he took bread which he had baked, and laid it before his elder brother; and he took with him his bread to the field, and he drave his cattle to pasture in the fields. And as he walked behind his cattle, they said to him, “Good is the herbage which is in that place”; and he listened to all that they said, and he took them to the good place which they desired. And the cattle which were before him became exceeding excellent, and they multiplied greatly.
Now at the time of ploughing his elder brother said unto him: “Let us make ready for ourselves a goodly yoke of oxen for ploughing, for the land has come out from the water, it is fit for ploughing. Moreover, do thou come to the field with corn, for we will begin the ploughing in the morrow morning.” Thus said he to him; and his younger brother did all things as his elder brother had spoken unto him to do them.
And when the morn was come, they went to the fields with their things; and their hearts were pleased exceedingly with their task in the beginning of their work. And it came to pass after this that as they were in the field they stopped for corn, and he sent his younger brother, saying, “Haste thou, bring to us corn from the farm.” And the younger brother found the wife of his elder brother, as she was sitting tying her hair. He said to her: “Get up, and give to me corn, that I may run to the field, for my elder brother hastened me; do not delay.” She said to him: “Go, open the bin, and thou shalt take to thyself according to thy will, that I may not drop my locks of hair while I dress them.”
The youth went into the stable; he took a large measure, for he desired to take much corn; he loaded it with wheat and barley; and he went out carrying it. She said to him, “How much of the corn that is wanted, is that which is on thy shoulder?” He said to her: “Three bushels of barley, and two of wheat, in all five; these are what are upon my shoulder.” Thus said he to her. And she conversed with him, saying, “There is great strength in thee, for I see thy might every day.” And her heart knew him with the knowledge of youth. And she arose and came to him, and conversed with him, saying, “Come, stay with me, and it shall be well for thee, and I will make for thee beautiful garments. “Then the youth became like a panther of the south with fury at the evil speech which she had made to him; and she feared greatly. And he spake unto her, saying: “Behold thou art to me as a mother, thy husband is to me as a father, for he who is elder than I has brought me up. What is this wickedness that thou hast said to me? Say it not to me again. For I will not tell it to any man, for I will not let it be uttered by the mouth of any man.” He lifted up his burden, and he went to the field and came to his elder brother; and they took up their work, to labor at their task.
Now afterward, at eventime, his elder brother was returning to his house; and the younger brother was following after his oxen, and he loaded himself with all the things of the field; and he brought his oxen before him, to make them lie down in their stable which was in the farm. And behold the wife of the elder brother was afraid for the words which she had said. She took a parcel of fat, she became like one who is evilly beaten, desiring to say to her husband, “It is thy younger brother who has done this wrong.” Her husband returned in the even, as was his wont of every day; he came unto his house; he found his wife ill of violence; she did not give him water upon his hands as he used to have, she did not make a light before him, his house was in darkness, and she was lying very sick. Her husband said to her, “Who has spoken with thee?” Behold she said: “No one has spoken with me except thy younger brother. When he came to take for thee corn he found me sitting alone; he said to me, ‘Come, let us stay together, tie up thy hair.’ Thus spake he to me. I did not listen to him, but thus spake I to him: ‘Behold, am I not thy mother, is not thy elder brother to thee as a father?’ And he feared, and he beat me to stop me from making report to thee, and if thou lettest him live I shall die. Now behold he is coming in the evening; and I complain of these wicked words, for he would have done this even in daylight.” And the elder brother became as a panther of the south; he sharpened his knife; he took it in his hand; he stood behind the door of his stable to slay his younger brother as he came in the evening to bring his cattle into the stable.
Now the sun went down, and he loaded himself with herbs in his daily manner. He came, and his foremost cow entered the stable, and she said to her keeper, “Behold thou thy elder brother standing before thee with his knife to slay thee; flee from before him.” He heard what his first cow had said; and the next entering, she also said likewise. He looked beneath the door of the stable; he saw the feet of his elder brother; he was standing behind the door, and his knife was in his hand. He cast down his load to the ground, and betook himself to flee swiftly; and his elder brother pursued after him with his knife. Then the younger brother cried out unto Ra Harakhti, saying, “My good Lord! Thou art he who divides the evil from the good.” And Ra stood and heard all his cry; and Ra made a wide water between him and his elder brother, and it was full of crocodiles; and the one brother was on one bank, and the other on the other bank; and the elder brother smote twice on his hands at not slaying him. Thus did he. And the younger brother called to the elder on the bank, saying: “Stand still until the dawn of day; and when Ra ariseth, I shall judge with thee before him, and he discerneth between the good and the evil. For I shall not be with thee any more forever; I shall not be in the place in which thou art; I shall go to the valley of the acacia.”
Now when the land was lightened, and the next day appeared, Ra Harakhti arose, and one looked unto the other. And the youth spake with his elder brother, saying: “Wherefore earnest thou after me to slay me in craftiness, when thou didst not hear the words of my mouth? For I am thy brother in truth, and thou art to me as a father, and thy wife even as a mother: is it not so? Verily, when I was sent to bring for us corn, thy wife said to me, ‘Come, stay with me’; for behold this has been turned over unto thee into another wise.” And he caused him to understand of all that happened with him and his wife. And he swore an oath by Ra Harakhti, saying, “Thy coming to slay me by deceit with thy knife was an abomination.” Then the youth took a knife, and cut off of his flesh, and cast it into the water, and the fish swallowed it. He failed; he became faint; and his elder brother cursed his own heart greatly; he stood weeping for him afar off; he knew not how to pass over to where his younger brother was, because of the crocodiles. And the younger brother called unto him, saying: “Whereas thou hast devised an evil thing, wilt thou not also devise a good thing, even like that which I would do unto thee? When thou goest to thy house thou must look to thy cattle, for I shall not stay in the place where thou art; I am going to the valley of the acacia. And now as to what thou shalt do for me; it is even that thou shalt come to seek after me, if thou perceivest a matter, namely, that there are things happening unto me. And this is what shall come to pass, that I shall draw out my soul, and I shall put it upon the top of the flowers of the acacia, and when the acacia is cut down, and it falls to the ground, and thou comest to seek for it, if thou searchest for it seven years do not let thy heart be wearied. For thou wilt find it, and thou must put it in a cup of cold water, and expect that I shall live again, that I may make answer to what has been done wrong. And thou shalt know of this, that is to say, that things are happening to me, when one shall give to thee a cup of beer in thy hand, and it shall be troubled; stay not then, for verily it shall come to pass with thee.”
And the youth went to the valley of the acacia; and his elder brother went unto his house; his hand was laid on his head, and he cast dust on his head; he came to his house, and he slew his wife, he cast her to the dogs, and he sat in mourning for his younger brother.
Now many days after these things, the younger brother was in the valley of the acacia; there was none with him; he spent his time in hunting the beasts of the desert, and he came back in the even to lie down under the acacia, which bore his soul upon the topmost flower. And after this he built himself a tower with his own hands, in the valley of the acacia; it was full of all good things, that he might provide for himself a home.
And he went out from his tower, and he met the Nine Gods, who were walking forth to look upon the whole land. The Nine Gods talked one with another, and they said unto him: “Ho! Bata, bull of the Nine Gods, art thou remaining alone? Thou hast left thy village for the wife of Anpu, thy elder brother. Behold his wife is slain. Thou hast given him an answer to all that was transgressed against thee.” And their hearts were vexed for him exceedingly. And Ra Harakhti said to Khnumu, “Behold, frame thou a woman for Bata, that he may not remain alive alone.” And Khnumu made for him a mate to dwell with him. She was more beautiful in her limbs than any woman who is in the whole land. The essence of every god was in her. The seven Hathors came to see her: they said with one mouth, “She will die a sharp death.”
And Bata loved her very exceedingly, and she dwelt in his house; he passed his time in hunting the beasts of the desert, and brought and laid them before her. He said: “Go not outside, lest the sea seize thee; for I cannot rescue thee from it, for I am a woman like thee; my soul is placed on the head of the flower of the acacia; and if another find it, I must fight with him.” And he opened unto her his heart in all its nature.
Now after these things Bata went to hunt in his daily manner. And the young girl went to walk under the acacia which was by the side of her house. Then the sea saw her, and cast its waves up after her. She betook herself to flee from before it. She entered her house. And the sea called unto the acacia, saying, “Oh, would that I could seize her!” And the acacia brought a lock from her hair, and the sea carried it to Egypt, and dropped it in the place of the fullers of Pharaoh’s linen. The smell of the lock of hair entered into the clothes of Pharaoh; and they were wroth with the fullers of Pharaoh, saying, “The smell of ointment is in the clothes of Pharaoh.” And the people were rebuked every day, they knew not what they should do. And the chief fuller of Pharaoh walked by the bank, and his heart was very evil within him after the daily quarrel with him. He stood still, he stood upon the sand opposite to the lock of hair, which was in the water, and he made one enter into the water and bring it to him; and there was found in it a smell, exceeding sweet. He took it to Pharaoh; and they brought the scribes and the wise men, and they said unto Pharaoh: “This lock of hair belongs to a daughter of Ra Harakhti: the essence of every god is in her, and it is a tribute to thee from another land. Let messengers go to every strange land to seek her: and as for the messenger who shall go to the valley of the acacia, let many men go with him to bring her.” Then said his Majesty, “Excellent exceedingly is what has been said to us”; and they sent them. And many days after these things the people who were sent to strange lands came to give report unto the King: but there came not those who went to the valley of the acacia, for Bata had slain them, but let one of them return to give a report to the King. His Majesty sent many men and soldiers, as well as horsemen, to bring her back. And there was a woman among them, and to her had been given in her hand beautiful ornaments of a woman. And the girl came back with her, and they rejoiced over her in the whole land.
And his Majesty loved her exceedingly, and raised her to high estate; and he spake unto her that she should tell him concerning her husband. And she said, “Let the acacia be cut down, and let one chop it up.” And they sent men and soldiers with their weapons to cut down the acacia; and they came to the acacia, and they cut the flower upon which was the soul of Bata, and he fell dead suddenly.
And when the next day came, and the earth was lightened, the acacia was cut down. And Anpu, the elder brother of Bata, entered his house, and washed his hands; and one gave him a cup of beer, and it became troubled; and one gave him another of wine, and the smell of it was evil. Then he took his staff, and his sandals, and likewise his clothes, with his weapons of war; and he betook himself forth to the valley of the acacia. He entered the tower of his younger brother, and he found him lying upon his mat; he was dead. And he wept when he saw his younger brother verily lying dead. And he went out to seek the soul of his younger brother under the acacia tree, under which his younger brother lay in the evening. He spent three years in seeking for it, but found it not. And when he began the fourth year, he desired in his heart to return into Egypt; he said, “I will go to-morrow morn.” Thus spake he in his heart.
Now when the land lightened, and the next day appeared, he was walking under the acacia; he was spending his time in seeking it. And he returned in the evening, and labored at seeking it again. He found a seed. He returned with it. Behold this was the soul of his younger brother. He brought a cup of cold water, and he cast the seed into it: and he sat down, as he was wont. Now when the night came his soul sucked up the water; Bata shuddered in all his limbs, and he looked on his elder brother; his soul was in the cup. Then Anpu took the cup of cold water, in which the soul of his younger brother was; Bata drank it, his soul stood again in its place, and he became as he had been. They embraced each other, and they conversed together.
And Bata said to his elder brother: “Behold I am to become as a great bull, which bears every good mark; no one knoweth its history, and thou must sit upon my back. When the sun arises I shall be in the place where my wife is, that I may return answer to her; and thou must take me to the place where the King is. For all good things shall be done for thee; for one shall lade thee with silver and gold, because thou bringest me to Pharaoh, for I become a great marvel, and they shall rejoice for me in all the land. And thou shalt go to thy village.”
And when the land was lightened, and the next day appeared, Bata became in the form which he had told to his elder brother. And Anpu sat upon his back until the dawn. He came to the place where the King was, and they made his Majesty to know of him; he saw him, and he was exceeding joyful with him. He made for him great offerings, saying, “This is a great wonder which has come to pass.” There were rejoicings over him in the whole land. They presented unto him silver and gold for his elder brother, who went and stayed in his village. They gave to the bull many men and many things, and Pharaoh loved him exceedingly above all that is in this land.
And after many days after these things, the bull entered the purified place; he stood in the place where the princess was; he began to speak with her, saying, “Behold, I am alive indeed.” And she said to him, “And, pray, who art thou?” He said to her, “I am Bata. I perceived when thou causedst that they should destroy the acacia of Pharaoh, which was my abode, that I might not be suffered to live. Behold, I am alive indeed, I am as an ox.” Then the princess feared exceedingly for the words that her husband had spoken to her. And he went out from the purified place.
And his Majesty was sitting, making a good day with her: she was at the table of his Majesty, and the King was exceeding pleased with her. And she said to his Majesty, “Swear to me by God, saying, ‘What thou shalt say, I will obey it for thy sake.’” He hearkened unto all that she said, even this. “Let me eat of the liver of the ox, because he is fit for naught.” Thus spake she to him. And the King was exceeding sad at her words, the heart of Pharaoh grieved him greatly. And after the land was lightened, and the next day appeared, they proclaimed a great feast with offerings to the ox. And the King sent one of the chief butchers of his Majesty, to cause the ox to be sacrificed. And when he was sacrificed, as he was upon the shoulders of the people, he shook his neck, and he threw two drops of blood over against the two doors of his Majesty. The one fell upon the one side, on the great door of Pharaoh, and the other upon the other door. They grew as two great Persea trees, and each of them was excellent.
And one went to tell unto his Majesty, “Two great Persea trees have grown, as a great marvel of his Majesty, in the night by the side of the great gate of his Majesty.” And there was rejoicing for them in all the land, and there were offerings made to them.
And when the days were multiplied after these things, his Majesty was adorned with the blue crown, with garlands of flowers on his neck, and he was upon the chariot of pale gold, and he went out from the palace to behold the Persea trees: the princess also was going out with horses behind his Majesty. And his Majesty sat beneath one of the Persea trees, and it spake thus with his wife: “Oh thou deceitful one, I am Bata, I am alive, though I have been evilly entreated. I knew who caused the acacia to be cut down by Pharaoh at my dwelling. I then became an ox, and thou causedst that I should be killed.”
And many days after these things the princess stood at the table of Pharaoh, and the King was pleased with her. And she said to his Majesty, “Swear to me by God, saying, ‘That which the princess shall say to me I will obey it for her.’” And he hearkened unto all she said. And he commanded, “Let these two Persea trees be cut down, and let them be made into goodly planks.” And he hearkened unto all she said. And after this his Majesty sent skilful craftsmen, and they cut down the Persea trees of Pharaoh; and the princess, the royal wife, was standing looking on, and they did all that was in her heart unto the trees. But a chip flew up, and it entered into the mouth of the princess; she swallowed it, and after many days she bore a son. And one went to tell his Majesty, “There is born to thee a son.” And they brought him, and gave to him a nurse and servants; and there were rejoicings in the whole land. And the King sat making a merry day, as they were about the naming of him, and his Majesty loved him exceedingly at that moment, and the King raised him to be the royal son of Kush.
Now after the days had multiplied after these things, his Majesty made him heir of all the land. And many days after that, when he had fulfilled many years as heir, his Majesty flew up to heaven. And the heir said, “Let my great nobles of his Majesty be brought before me, that I may make them to know all that has happened to me.” And they brought also before him his wife, and he judged with her before him, and they agreed with him. They brought to him his elder brother; he made him hereditary prince in all his land. He was thirty years King of Egypt, and he died, and his elder brother stood in his place on the day of burial.
Excellently finished in peace, for the ka of the scribe of the treasury Kagabu, of the treasury of Pharaoh, and for the scribe Hora, and the scribe Meremapt. Written by the scribe Anena, the owner of this roll. He who speaks against this roll, may Tahuti smite him.
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Summary
The story begins with two brothers, Anpu (the elder) and Bata (the younger), who live together. Anpu is married, and Bata serves as his hardworking and loyal assistant. One day, while Anpu is away, his wife tries to seduce Bata. Bata rejects her advances, and in retaliation, she falsely accuses him of trying to assault her.
Anpu, enraged by his wife’s lies, plans to kill Bata. However, Bata prays to the gods, and they intervene by creating a river full of crocodiles between the brothers. Bata explains the truth to Anpu and leaves home to live in the Valley of the Pine.
Bata hid his heart in the Valley of the Pine, where he went to live after leaving his brother’s home. He placed it in a tree there, linking his life to the heart. This detail highlights his connection to the new life he built in the valley, away from the betrayal he experienced in his brother’s household.
Bata builds a new life, and the gods reward him by creating a beautiful wife for him. However, the Pharaoh hears of her beauty and takes her away, causing Bata great sorrow. Betraying Bata, his wife reveals the location of his heart to the Pharaoh’s men, and they cut it down, causing Bata to die.
Anpu, realizing his brother’s death, searches for the heart, finds it, and revives Bata. Bata transforms into a bull and returns to Egypt, but the Pharaoh’s men kill the bull, and two drops of its blood create sacred trees. When the trees are cut down, a splinter impregnates Bata’s former wife, and she gives birth to a child who is the reincarnation of Bata. Eventually, Bata becomes the Pharaoh, while Anpu returns to their home.
The story emphasizes themes of loyalty, betrayal, divine justice, and the cyclical nature of life and death, reflecting ancient Egyptian beliefs about morality and the gods’ role in human affairs.
Scribe’s signature and message:
“Excellently finished in peace, for the ka of the scribe of the treasury Kagabu, of the treasury of Pharaoh, and for the scribe Hora, and the scribe Meremapt. Written by the scribe Anena, the owner of this roll. He who speaks against this roll, may Tahuti smite him.”
“Excellently finished in peace”
- This phrase is a traditional Egyptian expression used to signify the successful completion of a text. It was meant to demonstrate that the work was carried out diligently and to perfection, as expected of scribes.
- The reference to “peace” emphasizes the harmonious and respectful fulfilment of a duty, which was a central value in Egyptian culture and reflects adherence to maat (cosmic order and balance).
“For the ka of the scribe of the treasury Kagabu, of the treasury of Pharaoh, and for the scribe Hora, and the scribe Meremapt”
- “Ka”: The ka was a spiritual concept in Egyptian belief, representing a person’s life force or soul. Offering the text “to the ka” of specific individuals means it was written in honor of their spirits, possibly as a form of dedication or commemoration.
- Kagabu, Hora, and Meremapt: These were likely individuals of high status, either deceased scribes or patrons connected to the treasury of the pharaoh. Mentioning them suggests:
- The story was intended as an offering to these figures, perhaps as part of a funerary or memorial ritual.
- Alternatively, these individuals might have been the commissioners or supervisors of the work, and the dedication reflects gratitude or respect toward them.
“Written by the scribe Anena, the owner of this roll”
- Self-identification: The scribe Anena identifies himself as the author and owner of the papyrus. This was a form of professional acknowledgment, establishing the scribe’s authorship and skill in creating the text.
- Ownership: Anena’s claim as “owner of this roll” might indicate his pride in his craftsmanship or assert his right to the text as intellectual property.
“He who speaks against this roll, may Tahuti smite him”
- Tahuti (Thoth): Thoth (Tahuti in Egyptian) was the god of wisdom, writing, and scribes. As the divine protector of scribes, invoking Thoth here serves as a form of protection for the text.
- Curse Formula: The warning is a common “scribe’s curse,” a protective measure against defacement, theft, or criticism of the manuscript. It reflects:
- The sanctity of written texts in ancient Egypt, as they were seen as channels of divine truth and carriers of maat. (order, justice, and harmony).
- The scribe’s concern for the preservation and respect of his work.
- A belief in the magical power of words and the gods to enforce consequences for wrongdoing.
Analysis of “The Tale of Two Brothers”
“The Tale of Two Brothers,” an ancient Egyptian story written around 1400 BCE, reflects the cultural, religious, and moral values of its time. Below is a detailed analysis of its key elements:
1. Themes
Betrayal and Loyalty:
The story explores betrayal on multiple levels: the wife betrays Anpu by lying about Bata, and later, Bata’s wife betrays him by revealing his heart’s location. Conversely, the brothers display deep loyalty, as Anpu eventually seeks to save Bata and avenge him. This duality highlights the fragile nature of human relationships.
Divine Justice:
The gods play an active role in intervening when injustice occurs. For example, the crocodile-filled river and Bata’s revival demonstrate divine support for the innocent, aligning with the Egyptian concept of maat (order, justice, and harmony).
Transformation and Rebirth:
Bata undergoes several transformations—fleeing to a new land, becoming a bull, a tree, and eventually reincarnating as a child. These changes symbolize the cyclical nature of life, death, and renewal, a central tenet of ancient Egyptian belief in the afterlife.
Fate and Free Will:
The story weaves personal actions with divine intervention. While the characters make choices, the gods ultimately shape the outcome, reflecting the Egyptian worldview where human lives are intertwined with divine will.
2. Symbolism
The Heart:
Bata’s hidden heart represents his essence and life force. Its removal and restoration symbolize vulnerability and resilience, aligning with Egyptian beliefs about the heart as the center of the soul.
The Bull and Trees:
Bata’s transformation into a bull and later sacred trees reflects his connection to nature and the gods. Bulls symbolized strength and fertility, while trees were often viewed as vessels of life and renewal.
The Crocodile-filled River:
The river represents divine protection, separating Bata from Anpu’s wrath. Crocodiles, sacred to Sobek, signify both danger and guardianship.
3. Gender Roles and Power Dynamics
The Wife’s Role:
The wife’s actions drive the initial conflict, portraying a negative stereotype of women as deceitful and dangerous. This reflects patriarchal attitudes in ancient Egypt, where women were often viewed as subordinate yet influential in domestic spheres.
Pharaoh as a Symbol of Power:
The Pharaoh’s role in abducting Bata’s wife and his involvement in Bata’s death highlights the imbalance of power and the vulnerability of individuals to rulers’ whims.
4. Moral Lessons
The story conveys several moral lessons relevant to ancient Egyptian culture:
Truth and innocence will ultimately prevail, as seen in Bata’s vindication.
Betrayal, whether by family or a spouse, has consequences.
The gods reward virtue and punish wrongdoing, reinforcing faith in divine justice.
5. Literary Structure
Mythical Narrative:
The tale combines human and divine elements, creating a mythological framework. Bata’s transformations, the role of gods, and the miraculous events align with the storytelling traditions of ancient Egypt.
Cyclic Nature:
The story’s structure is cyclic, with Bata’s life repeatedly ending and beginning anew. This mirrors the Egyptian view of existence as a cycle of life, death, and rebirth. These themes were central to Egyptian mythology and funerary practices, as seen in the myth of Osiris, who also undergoes death and resurrection.
Character Archetypes:
Anpu: The remorseful elder brother, representing authority and eventual redemption.
Bata: The innocent, virtuous hero who faces trials and is ultimately rewarded.
The Wife: The antagonist, embodying deception and greed.
6. Religious and Cultural Context
Role of the Gods:
The gods are ever-present, guiding and shaping events. Their interventions emphasize their omnipotence and the importance of maintaining maat (cosmic balance).
Afterlife and Reincarnation:
Bata’s transformations reflect the Egyptian obsession with immortality and the afterlife. His eventual rebirth as a child highlights the belief in continuity beyond death.
Animals and Nature:
Animals (bull, crocodile) and nature (trees, rivers) play central roles in the narrative, underscoring their sacred significance in Egyptian cosmology.
7. Modern Relevance
Despite its ancient origins, “The Tale of Two Brothers” resonates with timeless themes: familial loyalty, betrayal, divine justice, and resilience in the face of adversity. Its moral lessons and symbolic richness make it a profound narrative that transcends its historical context.
In summary, the story serves as both a piece of entertainment and a moral guide, reflecting the values, beliefs, and literary traditions of ancient Egypt. Its themes and symbolism offer deep insight into the Egyptian worldview, particularly their understanding of justice, transformation, and the interconnectedness of life and the divine.
The portrayal of women
The portrayal of women as deceitful in “The Tale of Two Brothers” reflects the cultural and social norms of ancient Egyptian society and serves specific narrative and symbolic purposes. Here’s an analysis of why women are represented this way in the story:
1. Narrative Function
Catalysts for Conflict:
The deceitful actions of Anpu’s wife and later Bata’s wife drive the plot forward. The wife’s false accusation against Bata initiates the central conflict between the brothers, and Bata’s wife’s betrayal leads to his death as the bull.
This trope of deceitful women was common in ancient literature as a way to create dramatic tension and moral challenges for male protagonists.
Moral Lessons:
By portraying women as deceitful, the story warns against misplaced trust and highlights the consequences of betrayal. It serves as a cautionary tale about loyalty and the dangers of seduction and dishonesty.
2. Reflection of Patriarchal Values
Gender Stereotypes:
In ancient patriarchal societies, including Egypt, women were often portrayed as emotionally driven, manipulative, or dangerous, especially when they disrupted familial or social harmony. This stereotype justified male authority and control over women.
Role of Women in Society:
While Egyptian women had more rights than in some other ancient cultures (e.g., Mesopotamia or Greece) – they could own property, initiate divorces, and participate in religious rituals, their roles were still primarily domestic. The depiction of deceitful women could reflect anxieties about women’s potential influence within the home, especially as wives who could disrupt familial loyalty.
3. Symbolism of Women as Temptresses
Anpu’s Wife as a Seductress:
Anpu’s wife embodies the archetype of the temptress, a common figure in ancient and mythological literature. Her unfaithfulness and false accusation reflect cultural fears of women using their sexuality to manipulate men.
Similar examples include figures like Potiphar’s wife in the biblical story of Joseph.
Bata’s Wife as a Betrayer:
Bata’s wife betrays him by revealing his heart’s location to the Pharaoh. Her betrayal serves as a symbolic contrast to Bata’s purity and loyalty, emphasizing the moral dichotomy between the virtuous hero and the deceitful antagonist.
4. Reinforcement of Male Virtue
Contrast to Male Characters:
The deceitfulness of the women in the story contrasts sharply with the loyalty, hard work, and eventual redemption of the male characters (Bata and Anpu). This contrast elevates the virtues of the male protagonists while casting women as obstacles to be overcome.
Victimization of Men:
By portraying women as deceitful, the story shifts sympathy toward the male characters, particularly Bata, who is wronged and ultimately vindicated. This reinforces the idea of male innocence and victimhood.
5. Cultural and Religious Context
Mistrust of Female Power:
In Egyptian mythology and culture, women were often associated with both creation and chaos. Goddesses like Isis represented nurturing and wisdom, but figures like Sekhmet embodied destruction and wrath. This duality may have influenced the portrayal of women as both essential and potentially dangerous.
Moral Duality:
The deceitful women in the story may symbolize the chaotic forces that disrupt maat (order and harmony), while the male characters, particularly Bata, represent the restoration of balance through divine intervention.
6. Literary Tradition
Common Trope in Ancient Literature:
The portrayal of women as deceitful or dangerous is not unique to this story. Similar themes are found in many ancient texts, including the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Bible, and Greek mythology. These portrayals often reflect societal concerns about the perceived unpredictability of women and their potential to undermine male authority.
Modern Perspective
From a modern viewpoint, the depiction of women in this story is problematic and reflects outdated gender stereotypes. However, understanding this representation within its historical and cultural context reveals how ancient societies viewed gender roles, morality, and the dynamics of power and relationships.
In conclusion, the deceitful portrayal of women in “The Tale of Two Brothers” serves narrative, cultural, and symbolic purposes, reflecting the patriarchal values and literary traditions of ancient Egypt. It underscores the societal anxieties of the time while reinforcing moral and social hierarchies.
Origin of “The Tale of Two Brothers”
“The Tale of Two Brothers” is one of the most well-preserved examples of ancient Egyptian literature, dating back to the New Kingdom period (specifically, the late 19th Dynasty, around 1200 BCE). The text is recorded on the D’Orbiney Papyrus, now housed in the British Museum. It is attributed to the scribe Anena/Enena, who copied it as a literary piece for entertainment or moral instruction.
The story likely had earlier oral versions, as it reflects a mix of folkloric and religious motifs deeply ingrained in ancient Egyptian culture. These motifs, including sibling relationships, divine justice, transformation, and betrayal, were widely recognized and may have been passed down over generations.
Socio-Political Context of the Period
The New Kingdom period (circa 1550–1070 BCE) was a time of great prosperity, political stability, and cultural flourishing in Egypt. However, by the 19th Dynasty (1292–1189 BCE), Egypt was facing complex internal and external challenges. The socio-political context significantly influenced the content and themes of stories like “The Tale of Two Brothers.”
1. Political Stability and Pharaoh’s Role
The pharaoh during this period was seen as the embodiment of divine authority and the upholder of maat (cosmic order and justice). In the story, the pharaoh plays a significant role in shaping events, reflecting the centrality of the monarchy in Egyptian life.
Under rulers like Ramesses II (Ramses the Great), Egypt experienced territorial expansion and monumental construction projects. However, these achievements also highlighted the vast disparity in power between the ruling class and common people, a theme subtly present in the story when the pharaoh takes Bata’s wife.
2. Social Hierarchies
Egyptian society was strictly hierarchical, with the pharaoh at the top, followed by nobles, priests, scribes, artisans, and farmers. The brothers in the story, Anpu and Bata, are common labourers (farmers and herdsmen), reflecting the perspective of lower-class individuals. Their interactions with the elite (e.g., the pharaoh) highlight the vast social divide.
The depiction of the brothers as hardworking and virtuous aligns with the idealization of rural life and agricultural labour, considered the backbone of Egypt’s prosperity.
3. Family Dynamics
Family was central to Egyptian society, with a strong emphasis on sibling bonds, loyalty, and filial piety. The betrayal of trust by Anpu’s wife and the subsequent reconciliation between the brothers mirror societal values regarding the importance of family harmony.
At the same time, the story reflects anxieties about the disruptions women could cause in family dynamics, a recurring theme in patriarchal societies.
4. Religious and Mythological Influences
The story is deeply infused with religious and mythological symbolism, drawing on the rich spiritual landscape of the New Kingdom.
Divine Justice and Maat:
The story reinforces the concept of maat—the divine principle of truth, balance, and justice. The gods intervene repeatedly to restore justice, reflecting the belief that cosmic order would ultimately prevail.
5. Literary Traditions of the New Kingdom
The New Kingdom was a golden age of Egyptian literature, marked by works that combined entertainment, moral instruction, and religious reflection.
“The Tale of Two Brothers” is a prime example of this tradition, blending folklore with mythological elements to create a narrative that entertains while conveying moral lessons.
Scribes played a crucial role in this literary culture, as literacy was limited to an educated elite. Stories like this one were likely read aloud or performed for an audience, making them accessible to both the elite and common people.
6. External Influences and Connections
Egypt during the New Kingdom had extensive contact with neighbouring cultures, including the Hittites, Nubians, and Mesopotamians. These interactions may have influenced Egyptian storytelling traditions, introducing shared themes like sibling rivalry, betrayal, and divine intervention.
The story’s motifs of transformation and rebirth resonate with other ancient Near Eastern myths, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, which also explores themes of mortality and the search for justice.
Summary of Context
“The Tale of Two Brothers” reflects the complex interplay of socio-political stability, religious ideology, and evolving cultural values in New Kingdom Egypt. Its focus on divine justice, familial loyalty, and transformation mirrors the concerns and aspirations of a society deeply committed to upholding cosmic order in the face of human frailty and social challenges. Through its combination of myth, morality, and drama, the story provides a window into the lives, beliefs, and anxieties of ancient Egyptians.
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